element by which we become conscious of the external world. Tamas, lit. darkness, is heavy, dull and impure, concealing the reality from our vision. The respective functions of these three distinct constituents of Pradhana manifest themselves in the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe. How they cause these will be explained later on. This school of Sankhya holds that no Intelligent Being is necessary even as the efficient cause of the universe.

Now follows the refutation of these.

The second stanza of the Hymn is intended to refute the theories as to the cause of the universe advanced by the Vaiseshikas, Naiyayikas, Sankhyas, Svabhava-vadins, Nihilists (Sunyavadins), Saivas and Pauranikas.

The meaning of the second stanza may be explained as follows:

Refutation of the Atomic Theory.

9. In the series of effects from the sprout. of the plant up to its fruit, existence is admitted. Whence do, then, come those atoms and conjoin into fig-seeds?

That is to say, the doctrine that the atoms are the cause of the universe is contradicted by

experience. For, the upadana or material cause of the universe is defined to be that which is perceived in association with all objects of creation. It being only existence, not atoms, that we cognize in all objects of creation, the upadana of the universe must be Brahman spoken of as the Sat or existent, not the atoms or anything else. How, for instance, can atoms be said to be the upadana of the fig-seed, the final effect? Though atoms be the upadana of the dvyanukas, molecules of two atoms, yet they are not perceived to be as such in all products. Three dvyanukas are said to form a tryanuka, the next compound; a hypothesis not warranted by experience. If such were the case, we would perceive along with the pot the lump of clay out of which it was produced, and the pot along with pot-sherds. This cannot be, inasmuch as no after-state is perceived without the previous state entirely vanishing, and that what has vanished out of sight cannot be said to be the upadana. If this last were possible, then atoms themselves might be the upadana of the final products, which is contrary. to the hypothesis of the Vaiseshikas. Atoms are, moreover, assumed to be supersensuous; so that the effects which are made of supersensuous atoms must also be supersensuous. Wherefore, Brahman alone, the Existence, as present in all objects of creation, is the upadana of the universe.