Persists during Pantheism.—In the out-lands, however, reactions against this pantheism were continually taking place; returns to monotheism, or the belief in the personality of God and in the possibility of approaching Him with prayer and devotion. These movements frequently arose in the warrior caste and they asserted the rights of the laity as against those of the priesthood.

Forms the Vishnuite Churches.—The greatest of them all was the development of Vishnuite theology, which originated in the soot of the Bhāgavātas, who first evolved the theory of Bhakti, or passionate devotion of man to God.

[paragraph continues] Another reaction of a different kind against the Brahman priesthood was that of Buddhism, which, instead of returning to belief in a more personal God, introduced a greater agnosticism, emphasising the necessity of right action as against dogmatic belief, subtle philosophy, or elaborate ritual. Ritual had gradually been evolved by the Brahman priests, who felt that their teaching could only be upheld in this way, since for the multitude their philosophy could have but little meaning.

Partial Victory of the Priests and Pantheism.—All these reactions, whether monotheistic, or agnostic, made for simplification, and endeavoured to lesson mysteries and banish ritual. One by one, however, they were mastered by the priestly influence, which, while yielding something, always contrived to win a three-part victory. Thus the Vishnuite Churches, which originated in a monotheistic reaction against pantheism, a rebellion of the laity against the priesthood, became gradually an orthodox part of Hinduism, with all its ritual and much of its mystical philosophy super-added. In the same way Buddhism was partly absorbed and partly expelled.

Monotheism borrows Fervour from Islām—It will thus be seen that monotheistic doctrine had never been absent from Hinduism, though it belonged less to orthodoxy than to particular movements of reform. Where the later religion

of the Prophet came into contact with Hinduism it helped to fan the flame of monotheistic devotion, and to give it exclusiveness and proselytising zeal. The Hindu Bhāgats 1 or saints, who preceded Nānak, show to a considerable extent this influence of Islām, especially perhaps, the greatest of all, Kabīr, 2 who when a child had been adopted by Muhammadans.